Gotama Buddha was not vegetarian

Many people believe that Buddhists are vegetarian by default. This belief may stem from the notion that Buddhists do not support killing living beings including humans, animals, fish, birds or insects. While the five precepts for lay Buddhists encourage lay followers to refrain from taking life, there is no prohibition for eating flesh or fish. The Blessed One also taught followers that hunting, fishing and trading in flesh is wrong livelihood and creates unwholesome karma with unpleasant results. Even so, the purchasing of flesh from creatures already slaughtered is neutral kamma with neutral result.


Anguttaranikaaya A8.12 translated by Bhante Bhikkhu Bodhi.
This discourse describes a situation where general Siiha, who had previously been a supporter of the Jains in Vesaali listened to the Blessed One teach the Dhamma and converted from Jainism to Buddhism. Siiha means lion in Paali language.  Immediately upon being converted, Siiha invited the Blessed One for a meal the following day. He asked his servant to go to find meat ready for sale and had a meal prepared which the Blessed One and the Sangha of bhikkhus ate. 

Note the Paali discourses refer to the followers of the Jain religion as the Niganthas, after their leader Nigantha Naataputta (Nigantha, the son of Naata). These days Jains call this person "Mahaa viira", a title which means great hero. Hindus also sometimes use the title of Mahaa viir to refer to the deity Hanuman, though apart from current use of the title Mahaa viir, I am not aware of any other connection between Nigantha Naataputta and Hanuman the deity.

Then the Blessed One gave Siiha the general a progressive discourse, that is, a talk on giving, virtuous behavior, and heaven; he revealed the danger, degradation, and defilement of sensual pleasures and the benefit of renunciation. When the Blessed One knew that Siiha's mind was pliant, softened, rid of hindrances, uplifted, and confident, he revealed that Dhamma teaching special to the Buddhas: suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path. Then, just as a clean cloth rid of dark spots would readily absorb dye, so too, while Siiha the general sat in that same seat, there arose in him the dust-free, stainless Dhamma-eye: 'Whatever is subject to origination is all subject to cessation.' Siiha the general became one who had seen the Dhamma, attained the Dhamma, understood the Dhamma, fathomed the Dhamma, crossed over doubt, gotten rid of bewilderment, attained self-confidence, and become independent of others in the teaching of the Teacher [this is the stock phrase meaning that Siiha the general had attained the fruit of stream entry Sotapanna - a noble disciple]. He then said to the Blessed One: "Bhante, please let the Blessed One together with the Sangha of bhikkhus accept tomorrow's meal from me." 

The Blessed One consented by silence. Having understood that the Blessed One had consented, Siiha rose from his seat, paid homage to the Blessed One, circumambulated him keeping the right side toward him, and departed. Then Siiha addressed a man: "Go, good man, find some meat ready for sale." 

Then, when the night had passed, Siiha the general had various kinds of excellent foods prepared in his own residence, after which he had the time announced to the Blessed One: "It is time, Bhante, the meal is ready." 

Then, in the morning, the Blessed One dressed, took his bowl and robe, went to Siiha's residence along with the Sangha of bhikkhus, and sat down on the seat prepared for him. Now on that occasion a number of Niganthas went from street to street and from square to square in Vesaali, thrashing their arms about and crying out: "Today Siiha the general has slain a plump animal to prepare a meal for the ascetic Gotama! The ascetic Gotama knowingly uses meat obtained from an animal killed especially for his sake, the act being done on his account." 

Then a man approached Siiha the general and whispered into his ear: "Sir, you should know that a number of Niganthas are going from street to street and from square to square in Vesaali, thrashing their arms about and crying out: 'Today Siiha the general has slain a plump animal to prepare a meal for the ascetic Gotama! The ascetic Gotama knowingly uses meat obtained from an animal killed especially for his sake, a deed done on his account.'" 

"Enough, good man. For a long time those venerable ones have wanted to discredit the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha. They will never stop misrepresenting the Blessed One with what is untrue, baseless, false, and contrary to fact, and we would never intentionally deprive a living being of life, even for the sake of our life."

Then, with his own hands, Siiha the general served and satisfied the Sangha of bhikkhus headed by the Buddha with the various kinds of excellent food. Then, when the Blessed One had finished eating and had put away his bowl, Siiha sat down to one side. Then the Blessed One instructed, encouraged, inspired, and gladdened Siiha with a Dhamma talk, after which he rose from his seat and departed. 

Readers may also note three points. Firstly, note the sequence of events. Siiha the general attained the fruit of stream entry sotapanna, a noble disciple, before he ordered his man to find some meat ready for sale. I understand that stream enterers and all noble disciples are incapable of intentionally killing a living being. Secondly, note that Siiha the general was previously a well known Jain and mostly likely followed the Jain teaching of non-violence and vegetarianism. It is significant that on arising of the Dhamma eye and becoming a sotapanna, he knew that purchasing meat and preparing a meal with meat for the Sangha of bhikkhus was both allowable to bhikkhus and not unwholesome. He was now a confirmed Buddhist and confident in his actions. Thirdly, note that not only did he order the purchase of meat and have it prepared as a meal, he offered this meal to the Blessed One at the head of the Sangha. Siiha the general was a  virtuous man, well known for acts of generousity and for his confidence in speaking in public. He may have known that this offering would be a political act, openly defying the Jains. 

Majjhimanikaaya M55.5 Jiivaka Sutta translated by Bhante Bhikkhu Bodhi

"Jiivaka, I say that there are three instances in which meat should not be eaten: when it is seen, heard, or suspected [that the living being has been slaughtered for oneself]. I say that meat should not be eaten in these three instances. I say that there are three instances in which meat may be eaten: when it is not seen, not heard, and not suspected [that the living being has  been slaughtered for oneself.]. I say that meat may be eaten in these three instances."

In the Samantapaasaadikaa (the commentary on the Vinaaya, Discipline) Bhante Devadatta made many attempts to injure the person and reputation of the Blessed One so he could assume leadership of Sangha himself. In one attempt Bhante Devadatta instructed his followers to ask the Blessed One to impose five new rules on all members of the Sangha including a rule forbidding the consumption of fish and flesh. The Blessed One's reply was that those who wished to follow these rules may do so but the Blessed One did not make these rules including the vegetarian rule compulsory. 

In the Vinaaya Mahaavagga Mv.VI.23.9-15 rule prohibits eating ten specific kinds of flesh, mainly carnivorous animals such as dogs, snakes, lions and humans. If the Blessed One wished followers to cease eating flesh altogether, he would've not forbidden specific kinds of flesh, he would have simply forbidden flesh of all kinds. 

During the time of the Buddha Gotama, the Jain religion taught Jain followers to be strict vegetarian. The Brahmin contemporaries of the Blessed One hunted animals and sacrificed animals to their deities.  Later  Hindu revivalists competing with Jains and Buddhists may have sought to appear holier than "decadent" Buddhist monks and adopted vegetarianism. The vegetarian tradition in Indian culture grew stronger over time. 

Some ignorant people are influenced by superficial behaviour and do not properly investigate the teaching, so they imagine Buddhist monks who eat meat were not rid of desires and like to enjoy luxury.   So over time many Buddhists became vegetarian too. This became the rule with Mahayana Buddhism. Even today, many Mahayana Buddhists teach that Lord Buddha was vegetarian.  

Here is a short essay by Bhante Ajahn Brahmavamso about this issue which covers it very well. http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma3/meat.html

Here is the same essay on a different website: http://www.buddhachannel.tv/portail/spip.php?article4311

I read that the Dalai Lama (a Vajrayana Buddhist) is not vegetarian. He prefers not to eat meat but due to a medical condition, has been advised to eat meat at least once every two or three days.  Many Western Buddhists who follow the Tibetan tradition may be surprised and not believe that. You can also read the reference to that on Wikipedia here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism  

Bhante Thanissaro Bhikkhu's Buddhist Monastic Code has a chapter on food that explains what the Vinaaya and its commentaries have to say on food, including eating or not eating meat. 

Family and friends, philosophical materialism, equanimity and other divine abidings

I have observed that on meeting family and friends after many months or years overseas can be a "culture shock" for both myself and them. After a few months of being together, we familiarise ourselves with each other and to some extent accept that we have different values and life styles. 

There is no need for regrets that we may have changed or developed in the Dhamma while family and friends follow other paths. After reflecting on my own behaviour during various periods of my life, I imagine that my children and other loved ones are resting before they actively find and walk the Dhamma path.  Many of them seem to be sleeping through life, unaware of life's purpose and meaning.  

If we try to wake up the sleepers by actively proselytising, they would think us rude and they would not understand. They would only become irritated and then "roll over to the other side of the bed to continue sleeping."  The best we can do is to gently and subtly remind them of Dhamma. The rest is up to them. They are the owners of their kamma.  We do our best and then let them be. 

In these cases we also need to reflect on our discontent with this situation and our desire to proselytise. We can help ourselves by developing the four divine abidings, especially equanimity uppekkhaa.  

Imagine the point of view of a senior teacher who has realized the Dhamma to a high level. Many people ignore him or her and others ask for help but don't listen carefully to his or her advice. This is normal. The teacher knows that it is really the learner's own efforts that lead to success rather than the teacher's effort.

In all contact with my family (especially my children) I have tried teaching them to align with the Dhamma. Whenever I talk with them, I try to practice and speak with the principles of Dhamma in mind. I try to set a good example by my actions and speech. I teach them in diverse ways even though they may not know. Now I understand that mostly what I do is help them have happy dreams while they "sleep".  

My failure to wake others is likely due to my own "sleepiness." By writing this blog, listening to the Dhamma, studying the Dhamma, striving to live a virtuous spiritual life and similar activities, I strive to waken myself as much as, or more than, to waken other.

Sometimes, I imagine that we have biological relatives and spiritual relatives. In past existences we have been related to most beings, human and in the other realms (heaven, hell, animal, hungry ghosts etc). Some of these beings will have been helping us on our journey to realize Dhamma and can be closer to us in spirit than our current human biological relatives. 

I believe that as we continue on our Dhamma path, we may meet more of our spiritual relatives here and there. These spiritual relatives will feel naturally close and connected with us. We will share the Dhamma again and again.  In stories of the past lives of the Lord Buddha and the disciples such as Bhante Aananda, Bhante Saariputta, Bhante Mahaamoggallana, Bhante Mahaakassapa, Bhante Annuruddha, Bhante Kisagotami, Bhante Uppalavanaa, Bhante Khema and so on, I found they were all related to each other or were close associates in previous human and non-human existences. Often they were in teacher/student roles and helped each other to develop wholesome factors and other Dhamma virtues. 

A common understanding in Australia is the physicalist or philosophical materialist view which holds that matter is the fundamental substance in nature, and that all phenomena, including mental phenomena and consciousness, are the result of material interactions. This view is held to be common sense. I found that as soon as I ask questions about their assumptions, many naive materialists became defensive because they do not really understand the materialist position through reason or direct experience. They understand it through faith. They grew up with materialism as a given. 

The philosophical materialist view assumes that biological parents have a deep and essential connection with their biological children.  It is as though the blood and genes connect biological parents with children in ways that step parents and adopted children wouldn't.  According to the Dhamma, materialism is a type of wrong view (miccaa ditthi) because it holds that identity arises from matter such as blood and genes which are form ruupa. Such materialists assume some kind of ownership or belonging in the parent-child relationship even though none can explain what part of matter contains the aspect of ownership.  In fact there is no self in ruupa and no self in blood and genes. There is no ownership or belonging in the parent-child relationship except that which social actors may agree on by way of a non-material social or cultural construct.  

Very few people read or hear the Dhamma, never mind understand it, even if they do read or hear it. Even so, we live in a social world and the non-Buddhists around us have expectations about how relationships and social responsibilities work.  As Buddhists engaged in this social world, we need to manage those expectations and assumptions. Even if philosophical materialism is an instance of wrong view, its is assumed as "normal" and common sense in most social situations. So being part of a minority with right view can be difficult and lonely. We need to be patient and persevere with equanimity uppekkhaa and the other divine abidings. 

Knowing that most people suffer under their wrong views is already exercising compassion karunaa. Interacting with others with a mind of loving-kindness mettaa, is a skillful tactic for reducing our own tendency to be irritated or agitated by others' attachment to wrong views. Observing the success of others in the materialist world with a mind of altrustic joy muditaa helps us to be content with whatever status, property or health we may have. Altruistic joy also reduces our tendency to be jealous and thereby motivated to acquire gain, honour and praise at the expense of spiritual success.

Our "sleeping" family and friends may think that we don't love them because we are on a different path and don't do the same sleepy things they do. Let us consistently demonstrate that we do love them even though we may see and know in diverse ways. 

Finally, we should not give up trying to influence our family and friends to follow the Dhamma. I recommend you all read A8.26 Jivaka Sutta (translated by Bhante Thanisaro Bhikkhu) from the Anguttaranikaaya for the Blessed One's advice on how to do this. Here is the almost identical discourse translated by Bhante Bhikkhu Bodhi. 

A8.25 Mahaanaama Sutta

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling among the Sakyans at Kapilavatthu in the Banyan Tree Park. Then Mahänäma the Sakyan approached the Blessed One, paid homage to him, sat down to one side, and said to him:

"In what way, Bhante, is one a lay follower?"

' 'When, Mahanama, one has gone for refuge to the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha, in that way one is a lay follower."

"In what way, Bhante, is a lay follower virtuous?"

"When, Mahanama, a lay follower abstains from the destruction of life, from taking what is not given, from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from liquor, wine, and intoxicants, the basis for heedlessness, in that way a lay follower is virtuous."

"In what way, Bhante, is a lay follower practicing for his own welfare but not for the welfare of others?"

(1) ' 'When, Mahänama, a lay follower is himself accomplished in faith but does not encourage others to accomplish faith; 

(2) when he is himself accomplished in virtuous behavior but does not encourage others to accomplish virtuous behavior; 

(3) when he is himself accomplished in generosity but does not encourage others to accomplish generosity; 

(4) when he himself wants to see bhikkhus but does not encourage others to see bhikkhus; 

(5) when he himself wants to hear the good Dhamma but does not encourage others to hear the good Dhamma; 

(6) when he himself retains in mind the teachings he has heard but does not encourage others to retain the teachings in mind; 

(7) when he himself examines the meaning of the teachings that have been retained in mind but does not encourage others to examine their meaning; 

(8) when he himself has understood the meaning and the Dhamma and practices in accordance with the Dhamma, but does not encourage others to do so: 

it is in this way, Mahänäma, that a lay follower is practicing for his own welfare but not for the welfare of others.

"In what way, Bhante, is a lay follower practicing for his own welfare and

for the welfare of others?"

(1) "When, Mahänäma, a lay follower is himself accomplished in faith and also encourages others to accomplish faith; 

(2) when he is himself accomplished in virtuous behavior and also encourages others to accomplish virtuous behavior; 

(3) when he is himself accomplished in generosity and also encourages others to accomplish generosity; 

(4) when he himself wants to see bhikkhus and also encourages others to see bhikkhus; 

(5) when he himself wants to hear the good Dhamma and also encourages others to hear the good Dhamma; 

(6) when he himself retains in mind the teachings he has heard and also encourages others to retain the teachings in mind; 

(7) when he himself examines the meaning of the teachings that have been retained in mind and also encourages others to examine their meaning; 

(8) when he himself understands the meaning and the Dhamma and then practices in accordance with the Dhamma, and also encourages others to practice in accordance with the Dhamma: 

it is in this way, Mahänäma, that a lay follower is practicing for his own welfare and also for the welfare of others. 

Four Kinds of Persons Adorn the Saṅgha

Here is a discourse from the Anguttara Nikaya (translated by Bhante Bhikkhu Bodhi) that explains how the word "Saṅgha" refers to more than just the community of monks.

AN 4.7 They Adorn

“Bhikkhus, these four kinds of persons who are competent, disciplined, self-confident, learned, experts on the Dhamma, practicing  in accordance with the Dhamma, adorn the Saṅgha. What four?

(1) “A bhikkhu who is competent, disciplined, self-confident, learned, an expert on the Dhamma, practicing in accordance with the Dhamma, adorns the Saṅgha.

(2) A bhikkhuni who is competent ...

(3) A male lay follower who is competent ...

(4) A female lay follower who is competent, disciplined, self-confident, learned, an expert on the Dhamma, practicing in accordance with the Dhamma, adorns the Saṅgha.

Bhikkhus, these four kinds of persons who are competent,  disciplined, self-confident, learned, upholders of the Dhamma, practicing in accordance with the Dhamma, adorn the Saṅgha.”

One who is competent and self-confident,

learned, an expert on the Dhamma,

practicing in accord with the Dhamma,

is called an adornment of the Saṅgha.

A bhikkhu accomplished in virtue,

a learned bhikkhuni,

a male lay follower endowed with faith,

a female lay follower endowed with faith:

these are the ones that adorn the Saṅgha;

these are the Saṅgha’s adornments.

Note the phrasing of this discourse.  The four kinds of persons are one thing and the Saṅgha is another thing. It seems that some persons, followers of the Buddha Dhamma, who are not so competent, not so disciplined and so forth, are still part of the Saṅgha though not 'adornments'. A person  becomes an adornment through greater alignment with the Dhamma.  The more a person lives in accordance with the Dhamma, the more the Dhamma shines forth and the greater is their capacity to adorn the Saṅgha.

Bojjha'nga - Seven Factors of Awakening

This is one of my favourite themes in the suttas. The Bojjha'nga show a progression of dependence in various wholesome states arising from attending to bhikkhus who are accomplished in virtue, concentration, wisdom, liberation, knowledge and vision of liberation.  I believe it is also possible to do this in our imaginations in a virtual way. We can study the Dhamma and imagine visiting an accomplished bhikkhu.  We can record ourselves or others reading profound suttas and then later prepare a sacred moment to listen respectfully, with wise attention.  Of course if your do have convenient access to an accomplished bhikkhu-monk or bhikkhuni-nun, then you are very fortunate...  

Sa.myuttanikaaya  translated by Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi 

S46.1  The Himalayas 

At Saavattii. "Bhikkhus, based upon the Himalayas, the king of mountains, the naagas [dragons] nurture their bodies and acquire strength.  When they have matured their bodies and acquired strength, they then enter the pools. From the pools they enter the lakes, then the streams, then the rivers, and finally they enter the ocean. There they achieve greatness and expansiveness of body.   So too bhikkhus, based on virtue, established upon virtue, a bhikkhu develops and cultivates the seven factors of awakening, and thereby he achieves greatness and expansiveness in [wholesome] states...

S46.3  Virtue

"Bhikkhus, those bhikkhus who are

   accomplished in virtue, 

   accomplished in concentration, 

   accomplished in wisdom, 

   accomplished in liberation, 

   accomplished in knowledge and vision of liberation: 

  

   even the sight of those bhikkhus is helpful, I say; 

   even listening to them ... 

   even approaching them ... 

   even going forth after them is helpful, I say. 

For what reason?  Because when one has heard the Dhamma from such bhikkhus one dwells withdrawn by way of two kinds of withdrawal - withdrawal of the body and withdrawal of the mind.

[1] "Dwelling thus withdrawn, 

               one recollects that Dhamma and thinks it over. 

Whenever, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu dwelling thus withdrawn recollects that Dhamma and thinks it over, 

   on that occasion the awakening factor of mindfulness is aroused by the bhikkhu; 

   on that occasion the bhikkhu develops the awakening factor of mindfulness; 

   on that occasion the awakening factor of mindfulness comes to fulfilment by development in the bhikkhu.

[2] "Dwelling thus mindfully, 

                he discriminates that Dhamma with wisdom, 

                examines it, 

                makes an investigation of it.   

Whenever, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu dwelling thus mindfully, 

                discriminates that Dhamma with wisdom,  

                examines it, 

                makes an investigation of it,

   on that occasion the awakening factor of discrimination of states is aroused by the bhikkhu; 

   on that occasion, the bhikkhu develops the awakening factor of discrimination of states  [dhammavicaya]; 

   on that occasion the awakening factor of discrimination of states comes to fulfilment by development in the bhikkhu.

[3] While he thus 
              discriminates that Dhamma with wisdom, 
              examines it, 
              makes an investigation of it, 
his energy is aroused without slackening.  
Whenever, bhikkhus, 
     a bhikkhu's energy is aroused without slackening as he
               discriminates that Dhamma with wisdom, 
               examines it,
               makes an investigation of it, 
  on that occasion the awakening factor of energy is aroused by the bhikkhu;
  on that occasion the bhikkhu develops the awakening factor of energy [viriya]; 
  on that occasion the awakening factor of energy comes to fulfilment by development in the bhikkhu.

[4] When his energy is thus aroused,

    there arises in him spiritual rapture.

Whenever, bhikkhus, spiritual rapture arises in a bhikkhu whose energy is aroused,

  on that occasion, the awakening factor of rapture is aroused by the bhikkhu;

  on that occasion the bhikkhu develops the awakening factor of rapture [piiti];

  on that occasion the awakening factor of rapture comes to fulfilment by development in the bhikkhu. 

[5] For one whose mind is uplifted by rapture

   the body becomes tranquil and the mind becomes tranquil.

Whenever, bhikkhus, the body becomes tranquil and the mind becomes tranquil in a bhikkhu whose mind is uplifted by rapture,

   on that occasion, the awakening factor of tranquility [passadhi] is aroused by the bhikkhu;

   on that occasion the bhikkhu develops the awakening factor of tranquility;

   on that occasion the awakening factor of tranquility comes to fulfilment by development in the bhikkhu.

[6] For one whose body is tranquil and who is happy

   the mind becomes concentrated. 

Whenever, bhikkhus, the mind becomes concentrated in a bhikkhu whose body is tranquil and who is happy,

   on that occasion, the awakening factor of concentration [samaadhi] is aroused by the bhikkhu;

   on that occasion the bhikkhu develops the awakening factor of concentration;

   on that occasion the awakening factor of concentration comes to fulfilment by development in 

   the bhikkhu. 

[7] He closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated.

Whenever, bhikkhus, a bhikkhu closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated,

  on that occasion, the awakening factor of equanimity [upekkhaa] is aroused by the bhikkhu; 

  on that occasion the bhikkhu develops the awakening factor of equanimity;  

  on that occasion the awakening factor of equanimity comes to fulfilment by development in the bhikkhu. 

Bhikkhus, when these seven factors of awakening have been developed and cultivated in this way, 
seven fruits and benefits may be expected. What are the seven fruits and benefits?

[1]  One attains final knowledge early in this very life [full-awakening - Arahat].

[2]   If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life, 

          then one attains final knowledge at the time of death. 

[3]  If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life or at the time of death, 

          then with the utter destruction of the five lower fetters one becomes 

          an attainer of Nibbaana in the interval.

[4]   If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life ... or become an attainer of Nibbaana in 

             the interval, 

          then with the utter destruction of the five lower fetters one becomes 

          an attainer of Nibbaana upon landing.

[5]   If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life ... or become an attainer of Nibbaana

             upon landing,

          then with the utter destruction of the five lower fetters one becomes

          an attainer of Nibbaana without exertion.

[6]   If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life ... or become an attainer of Nibbaana

             without exertion,

          then with the utter destruction of the five lower fetters one becomes

          an attainer of Nibbaana with exertion.

[7]   If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life ... or become an attainer of Nibbaana 
             with exertion, 
          then with the utter destruction of the five lower fetters one becomes 
          one bound upstream, heading towards the Akani.t.tha realm 
          [the exclusive heavenly realm for Non-returners-Anaagaami].
When, bhikkhus, the seven factors of awakening have been developed and cultivated in this way, these seven fruits and benefits may be expected. 

Note The first six of these seven benefits are the achievement of Arahat - full awakening, the fourth and final type of ariyapuggala-noble person. These six benefits are varied by time taken to attain Arahat. The series begins with the fastest and ends with the slowest in terms of time taken to attain full awakening. The seventh benefit is the attainment of anaagaami - non-returning, which is the second highest type of ariyapuggala and destined to attain full-awakening after a possibly very long life span as a Brahma being (diety, celestial being...).

Readers should note that a prerequisite to either Arahat or Anaagaami is very well developed indriya-controlling faculties and particularly well developed controlling faculty of concentration - samaadhi, also known as the awakening factor of concentration. The lower two ariyapuggala, the stream enterer - sotapanna, and the once-returner - sakadaagaami, have less well developed concentration. Even so, those lower two have well developed virtue - siila and unshakable confidence - saddhaa in the three refuges. Although the bojjhan'ga appear to be advanced training for sotapanna and sakadaagami seeking the higher paths and fruits, don't be put off.  The bojjhan'ga are still open for faithful worldlings - putthujana to study and practice and reap great benefits.

S46.6 Ku.n.daliya Sutta
I  have summarised this sutta and provided a dependent sequence of fulfilment.  This is an important set of relations and well worth contemplating.

restraint of the sense faculties
   fulfils

three kinds of conduct (bodily, verbal and mental)
   fulfils

the four establishments of mindfulness
   fulfils

the seven factors of awakening
    fulfils

true knowledge and liberation [awakening].

There is a shorter version of this series in the Aanaapaanasa.myutta S54.13.

You can read more details about the three kinds of conduct (bodily, verbal and mental) in many sutta including M114 and M78.

For readers who are interested in academic study of the Bojjha'nga I recommend "The Buddhist Path to Awakening" by R.M. L. Gethin, published by Oneworld Publications in 2001.  This book covers the 37 Bodhipakkhiyadhamma; Chapter V Factors of Awakening specifically covers the Bojjha'nga. However, this book maybe too theoretical for Buddhists seeking practical advice on the path.  Even so, I transcribed and paraphrased below the bare headings of practices that assist in the arising of each of the seven Bojjha'nga.    These tips are very useful practical advice.

Mindfulness - Sati

• mindfulness and clear comprehension (sati-samaja~n~na)
• avoidance of people of lost mindfulness 
• association with people of established mindfulness
• commitment to the above

Discrimination of the Dhamma - Dhamma-vicaaya

• asking questions
• keeping the body and belongings clean
• balancing the five controlling faculties
• avoiding unwise people
• associating with wise people
• reflection on practice with deep knowledge
• commitment to the above

Strength/Energy - Viriya

• reflection on the dangers of decline to unfortunate existences such as hell, ghost, poor unhealthy human and so on.
• seeing the benefits of rising to fortunate existences such as sensual heavens, brahma realms and wealthy healthy human worlds etc.
• reflection on the course of the journey
• honouring alms received
• reflection on the greatness inheriting the Buddha's dispensation
• reflection on the greatness of the Buddha
• reflection on the greatness of one's birth
• reflection on the greatness of the other practitioners
• avoidance of idle people
• association with strong energetic people
• commitment to the above

Joy/rapture - Piiti

• recollection of the Buddha
• recollection of the Dhamma
• recollection of the Sangha
• recollection of virtue
• recollection of generosity
• recollection of devas
• recollection of peace
• avoidance of rough people
• association with affectionate people
• reflection on satisfying discourses
• commitment to the above

Tranquility - Passadhi

• consuming fine food
• living in a pleasant climate
• keeping a comfortable posture
• maintaining balance
• avoidance of violent people
• association with tranquil people
• commitment to the above

Concentration - Sammaadhi

• keeping one's person and belongings clean
• balancing the five controlling faculties
• skill regarding the sign-nimitta
• appropriate application
• appropriate easing off
• appropriate encouragement
• appropriate overseeing
• avoidance of unconcentrated people
• association with concentrated people
• reflection on the jhaanas and liberations
• commitment to the above

[some of these refer to jhaana techniques and for people unfamiliar with jhaana practice, I recommend you read meditation manuals such as the Vissudhimagga and Vimmuttimagga.]

Equinamity - upekkhaa

• balanced regard for all beings
• balanced regard for all mental forces
• avoiding people with a bias regarding beings or a bias regarding mental forces
• commitment to all that

Michael's comments
Note the fundamental significance of virtue-siila [S46.1 quoted above].   "...based on virtue, established upon virtue, a bhikkhu develops and cultivates the seven factors of awakening, and thereby he achieves greatness and expansiveness in [wholesome] states..."

The seven Bojjha'nga are developed and the five hindrances are suppressed (see S46.38 & S46.40].  

The seven Bojjha'nga need to be balanced. Bojjha'nga 2, 3 & 4 are stimulating and Bojjha'nga 5, 6 & 7 are  tranquilising. If the stimulating group dominate, one may become overexcited whilst if the tranqulising group dominate, one may become sleepy. Either way, the Dhamma will not be clear and progress will be slow. The first Bojjha'nga, mindfulness-sati, is the most important factor because it helps one to know and see clearly when the other factors are undeveloped or out of balance. See S46.53 for more details and some explanatory similes about the stimulating and tranquillising groups in the bojjha.nga.

I have transcribed S46.3 above in such a way to enable the reader to see the structure of clauses.  This makes the sutta easier to read as well as highlight the differences between the stimulating group and the tranquillising group.  Maybe you can see that as soon as rapture arises, the discriminating, examining and investigating stops.  This is a very important point.  To progress, one must allow the rapture, tranquility and concentration to proceed without analysing. This is subtle and may take a while to get right.  I for one am quite prone to analysing.  There needs to be a balance though.  Analysis and rationality are useful but limited.  Profound wisdom may arise when the mind is tranquil and concentrated.

Note the final factor of upekkhaa-equinamity. "He closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated."  I understand this to be conciousness-vi~n~naana being aware of the feelings-vedanaa, perceptions-sa~n~naa and intentional volitions-sankhaara (form/body-ruupa is not part of mind-naama) that occur in the "mind thus concentrated". This would be a relatively peaceful mind but still subject to the three general characteristics-tilakkhana (unsatisfactoriness-dukkha, impermanence-annicca and not-self-annattaa). A person with a concentrated mind may not have well developed upekkhaa and due to craving and attachment to rapture-piiti and tranquility-passadhi (M138.12), may not initially have profound insight leading to a breakthrough. As soon as  upekkhaa is mature enough and there has previously been well developed right view, then a breakthrough in the Dhamma will occur - awakening. It is natural.

Note the similarities with the noble eightfold path which begins with right view - sammaadi.t.thi and ends with right concentration - sammaasamaadhi. There are differences in emphasis only. The Dhamma may be likened to a multifaceted jewel. One facet may look like seven factors another facet may look like four establishments (of mindfulness), another facet may look like an eightfold path and so on.

May the seven factors of awakening be developed and cultivated, may the seven fruits be realised.

Upgrading Your Uposatha Observance: five then eight and beyond

The Dhamma is internally consistent and truthful. It is amazingly complete and flawless.  It is possible to take almost any aspect of the Dhamma and see relations with most other aspects of the Dhamma.

Some people misunderstand precepts and think that more is better. Thus someone practicing ten precepts might be considered more virtuous than an eight preceptor and even more superior than a five preceptor. According to this incorrect understanding, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis would be inherently more virtuous than lay people because they are obliged to practice over 200 or over 300 rules respectively.  Think about it though: are bhikkhunis more virtuous than bhikkhus because they have more rules?  The first five bhikkhus (pancasaavakaa) and maybe even the first few hundred thousand bhikkhus did not have any rules. Vinaaya rules were created over time to guide worldling-putthujana monastics. Many of these lacked mindfulness and may have been motivated to join the Sangha for because the Buddhasangha was popular, well supported by lay benefactors and rapidly growing in size and influence.  So the number of precepts or rules is not a measure of virtue. 

Virtue-siila, concentration-samaadhi and wisdom-pa~n~naa are all related and integrated parts of the eightfold noble path.   Virtue and other aspects of the path are qualities rather than quantities.  Greater virtue necessarily implies deeper concentration and profounder wisdom. The three go together simultaneously developed and improved as qualities. 

We need to focus on the practice and the results, the cause and effect of actions – kamma.  Wholesome/skilful – kusala actions such as observing Uposatha precepts will lead to pleasant results and visa-versa.   The precepts are guides to daily life that help us reduce the chances of unwholesome/unskilful akusala actions that lead to harmful results.   Monastics who are supposed to be free from the usual distractions of sensuality, earning a living and supporting families are able to use the observance of so many rules to develop deep concentration – samaadhi and with that concentration are able to gain insight into the Dhamma and find liberation from suffering.  Lay people can do this as well. The principles are the same though the lifestyle may be different.    

First five precepts. By not taking life, we are compassionate and loving toward all beings that fear death and prefer to live. We also give the gift of life. By not taking what is not given, we reduce the fear that other beings have for losing their belongings.  We also give material things to others. By refraining from sexual misconduct or indeed any sexual conduct, we reduce opportunities for our minds and the minds of our lovers to be flooded with extreme emotions which reduce mindfulness and create conditions for suffering.  We also give social harmony to our communities.  By refraining from lies, abusive speech other wrong speech acts, we avoid harming other’s reputations, we avoid inflaming their anger and confusing them with ignorance.  By refraining from intoxicating drinks and other substances, we keep our minds relatively clear and sharp so we can remember the Dhamma and act wisely in all situations.   Intoxicated people are more likely to break the other precepts due to their degraded senses. 

The perpetrators and victims of acts of violence, theft, molestation, slander and so on are at least temporarily mentally disturbed and restless. Without a perspective of the Dhamma and some degree of Right View (sammaadi.t.thi) the victims may seek revenge and due to their confusion, harm others.  By doing so, they perpetuate the cycle of suffering and rebirth.  Only by love is hate quenched. Only by renunciation is lust abated. Only by wisdom is ignorance destroyed.  

Other beings will feel less fear in our presence due to our practice of virtue-siila.  This wholesome behaviour will immediately increase environmental peace and safety.  Our good example may inspire others to practice .  Imagine how peaceful our lives would be if we did not have to worry about murder, theft, molestation of self and family, verbal abuse and so forth. Thus with quieter and safer environmental conditions, people will be better able to see clearly what is happening in mind and body. There will naturally be more opportunities for developing the higher mind and possibly achieving a breakthrough in the Dhamma. 

The last three Uposatha precepts. Most lay people temporarily observe the last three Uposatha precepts either on meditation retreats or on Uposatha days.  Not observing these last three precepts doesn’t obviously lead to harm for ourselves and others so why observe them?  We observe the other three precepts in order to simplify our lives and avoid indulgence in sensual pleasure.  Sensual pleasure is the practice of the lay person in daily life, not the practice of a someone intensifying their progress on the eightfold noble path.  In itself, sensual pleasure is not wrong so don’t get all guilty about having fun.  However, sensual pleasure is distracting, reduces concentration and reduces the opportunities for wisdom to arise.  In other words sensual pleasures slow you down your progress on the spiritual path.  The suttas have many references to sensual pleasures being inherently disappointing and unsatisfactory with only the most fleeting sense of gratification.  Thus by observing the eight Uposatha precepts we can create more conditions for environmental peace and concentration (samaadhi). 

The last three precepts are like an upgrade on the first five. The reduced indulgence in sensuality will help us to maintain a clear peaceful mind in which samaadhi and the other controlling faculties (panc’indriya) can develop.   The difference between an enlightened being and an ordinary worldling is the development of the controlling faculties.

The benefits arising from observing the last three Uposatha precepts is highly dependent on successfully observing the first five precepts. The first five precepts are the basic foundation and the last three are the more advanced practice with more profound results.   

Upgrading Uposatha.  

Some Buddhists may not have convenient living conditions to formally observe Uposatha precepts in all respects. For example, they may feel obliged to wear cosmetics and jewellery to work and may have to eat an evening meal with non-Buddhist family.  Perhaps a non-Buddhist lover may seduce us or demand services on Uposatha day.

Some Buddhists may observe Uposatha precepts regularly but feel they are not making much progress or struggle to see how it is beneficial.  It is inconvenient and maybe they feel dissatisfied.  So how do we upgrade or revive our spiritual life in these two sets of circumstances?   

I suggest below a few ways to give some focus to your observance of Uposatha whether you can practice eight precepts or not. This should give you some ideas which you can adapt for your particular lifestyle and background.

Loving-kindness/friendliness - mettaa and compassion - karunaa. It is helpful to deliberately observe five precepts and Uposatha precepts with mettaa and karunaa in mind. Restraining ourselves from harming others is loving and compassionate. We wish other beings were happy and well. We wish other beings were free from harm and suffering.  It would be odd to attempt mettaa and karunaa practice while not keeping at least the first five precepts because in breaking any of these precepts, we would be directly harming others or intoxicating the mind so that it is unable to concentrate. Beware the near-enemies of mettaa and karunaa.  Beginners in the practice or those who are intoxicated may confuse mettaa with lust or karunaa with pity. 

Observing the five precepts or the Uposatha precepts is practicing love and compassion towards ourselves because we don’t create unwholesome/unskilful kamma that will result in our suffering.  Lord Buddha said that sincerely observing the five precepts will result in a heavenly rebirth, how much more beneficial would be the results of observing Uposatha precepts.  Note that aiming for a heavenly rebirth would be a ‘wrong aim’.  It is better to aim for liberation from the cycle of rebirths altogether.

Sympathetic joy - muditaa. When we go onto Facebook or attend the temple, we may come to know about other Buddhists who practice the five precepts or the eight Uposatha precepts. We can deliberately practice muditaa for these fellow Buddhists, recollecting that they are excellent, practicing in the good way, the true way, the straight way and the proper way.  By recollecting that these fellow Buddhists will be happier and will benefit greatly from this practice we also share in their merits. We say "saadhu, saadhu, saadhu..." congratulations, well done!  Beware the near enemy of muditaa is pride in the achievements of others. Pride in the achievements of others includes attachment.  Muditaa is similar to mettaa and karunaa because it has no aspect of attachment.

Equanimity - upekkhaa. In daily life we will meet many people who do not consciously practice the Uposatha precepts or any precepts. As a result these people wander about in ignorance and suffering. It is not easy for anyone to lead another person to follow the right path. There may be small chances here and there to influence others. Usually, we wait until others ask questions. So we practice equanimity for the sufferings of others.  Remembering that everyone will get the results of their actions. Note that equanimity is not the same as indifference which is allied with ignorance. Equanimity is allied with wisdom and insight.  Equanimity is an underlying component in the other three divine abodes and present in all wholesome mental states. 

It is possible to develop mental aborptions - jhaana with any of the four divine abodes above though traditionally mettaa, karunaa and muditaa can be used for 1st-3rd jhaana while upekkhaa can be used only for 4th jhaana. This is a technical topic for another post. You can read more in the Vimuttimagga and Visuddhimagga and other meditation manuals. However, there is a lot of benefit from just reflecting on the four divine abodes during the day. As we refrain from taking life, or stealing etc. we can say to our selves "may all beings be happy and well, may all beings be free from harm and suffering..." I find this useful on the bus crowded with noisy people when commuting to work.  When I find a cockroach or spider in the home I capture it and recite "may all beings be happy and well...." as I gently take the insect outside. 

It is also useful to just recite "may all beings be happy and well" at free times during the day. It is relaxing and wholesome. This practice helps keep unwholesome objects from taking over.  

Dhamma study. Choose one Dhamma topic, read a bit, write some brief notes and then reflect on it throughout the day. For example, read about the one of the seven sets in the 37 seven aids to enlightenment - Bodhipakkhiyadhamma. Maybe start with the seven factors for enlightenment - Bojjhanga. Try to remember the Paali words for the factors and memorise the correct sequence of factors. On another day, read about what the commentaries say for ways to cultivate and improve the seven enlightenment factors.  On another day read some more suttas that might refer to the seven factors and may refer to some of the benefits (such as improving health and length of life) in recollecting the seven factors.

As you contemplate the Dhamma in this way you will be practicing dhammanusati which is one of the six recollections recommended by the Blessed One for purifying the mind.  This works because the mind is focussed on a wholesome/skilful object and not distracted with lust, anger or delusion. 


Siilanusati - recollection of virtue.  As someone who is keeping precepts you may be feel confident enough to reflect on your accumulating virtue.  If you have been able to keep five precepts and eight precepts then you have good grounds for reflecting on the merits of your practice. Without necessarily getting  big-headed about it, you objectively realise that this practice is beneficial, it is purifying, creating conditions for happiness and leading you to more wholesome mental states.  Someone who is able to keep precepts is also someone who has enough mindfulness and Right View to control impulsive cravings and has learned to live peacefully to some extent. This is the foundation of training for higher mental development.  On occasions when there are breaks in the precepts (hopefully minor) then one immediately determines to sincerely refrain from breaking the precepts again. It is possible to recover a mind free from remorse, a mind settled and peaceful once again.  Do not underestimate the power of keeping precepts even for a short time such as one minute.  If one is sincere, there are great benefits here and now including greater self-esteem, courage and confidence.

Caaganusati - recollection of generosity. In being generous, by giving and sharing, you have been reducing attachment and clinging.  This wholesome conduct will benefit others and oneself and lead to more wholesome states. This is faultless behaviour. 

32 parts of the body. For those of us who are living a celibate life, I recommend memorising the 32 parts of the body in forward and reverse order as outlined in the Visuddhimagga.  I found this practice is very effective in temporarily overcoming lustful states of mind.  Remembering this famous list is a useful way to concentrate the mind and give it temporary relief from worry and strife. Note there are intensive ways of practicing the 32 parts of the body which can lead to first mental absorption – jhaana though that need not be the goal of the practice.  There are many benefits without necessarily attaining jhaana. Again I refer keen readers to the various meditation manuals for more details.  

Devanusati.  On Uposatha day and other days deliberately recollect that the devas attained their fortunate rebirth and powers on account of previously virtuous conduct such as practising the five precepts and the eight Uposatha precepts. Now you and other sincere Buddhists are practicing in this same way and likely to attain a fortunate rebirth in a heavenly realm. As you practice in this way, you may sometimes  recite "may the devas be happy and well...".  Remember that many devas are Buddhists and have attained various paths and fruits in the Buddha's dispensation.  You may recollect these noble devas as part of the ariyasangha. 

In times when you feel afraid that someone maybe going to hurt you, recollect the devas and maybe you can overcome your fears. But don't just rely on the devas to protect you. Use common sense and find safety.  Note that overcoming fears in this way is possible with other wholesome objects such as recollecting any or all of the three refuges (Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha). 

Death - maranaanusati. On Uposatha day and other days, deliberately recollect the certain fact that you will die and so will all the people you know. Recollecting death is a way to put our lives in perspective and determine what is really important.  In Australian culture, recollecting death is considered a negative and gloomy occupation. Actually it is a wholesome and sensible activity.  Some people may find it difficult at first to overcome previous preconceptions and biases. If you persevere you may develop some equanimity and a completely different set of priorities will emerge. I found that recollecting the inevitable nature of death gave me a greater sense of spiritual urgency - sa.mvega. This really motivates and intensifies the practice.  You may find it much easier to practice the five precepts and eight Uposatha precepts after you have deepened your maranaanutsati.

Summary. By simplifying our lives and deepening our practice of the 4 divine abodes and other methods outlined above we will definitely be upgrading our Uposatha observance.   The basic peace in life created by the first five precepts can be deepened by the 8 Uposatha precepts. This results in greater peace and concentration – samaadhi. The deliberate practice of the 4 divine abodes and other methods is further deepening of the practice that will bring enormous benefits to ourselves and all others in the environment.

May you dear reader feel inspired to go deeper into the Dhamma. May you be free from harm and suffering.

Buddhava.msa - 25 Samaasambuddha

While I was staying at Na Uyana Aranya in Sri Lanka in the first half of 2010, I read the English translation of the Buddhava.msa by .... and published by the Pali Text Society.  This book really needs a lot of editing and possibly a completely new translation. Despite imperfections in the book, I am grateful for the efforts of the translator and the PTS for making this attempt.  The Buddhava.msa is a relatively small book in the Khuddakanikaaya - "The Minor Anthologies".  The Buddhava.msa and most of the other books in the Khuddakanikaaya is commonly believed to have been written long after the Parinibbaana of the Blessed One so I don't have as much confidence in it as I do in the four main collections (Majjhima, Sa.myutta, Digha, Anguttara).  Even so the books in the Kuddhakanikaaya such as the Buddhava.msa, the Petavatthu and Vimaanavatthu and their associated commentaries enrich Buddhist culture and provide entertainment value at least.

I dare to provide the analogy of a block-buster movie such as Star Wars which inspired many subsequent graphic novels, paperback novels, animated serials and computer games all based in the "Star Wars universe".  If you are into Star Wars, you will know what I mean. Star Trek, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Firefly and many other examples exist.  Origin stories are typical in contemporary popular culture for comic book heros.  It seems plausible that there is a ready audience for apocryphal stories based on Buddhism.   I've seen how readily faithful Buddhist audiences listen to monks retelling these stories by way of illustrating a principle in the Dhamma.  In conversations with others, we often refer to various stories as support for the point we are trying to make whilst disregarding for the moment their historical accuracy. Perhaps it doesn't matter if the stories are historically accurate. It would be impossible to test or prove accuracy anyway. The value in the stories is also greater than entertainment.  They are morality tales exemplifying the best possible way to live. When we consume the news of the world we mostly hear the worst of possibilities - depravity, fear and hopelessness.

Unlike popular fiction these Buddhist stories are not fantasies. They are true in principle.  They inspire the best in us.  Unlike Star Wars, these Buddhist stories are mostly consistent with the Dhamma in the other parts of the Tipitaka.  The motivations, intentions and views of the buddhas, the bodhisattas and various noble ones (ariyasaavaka) in these stories are the Dhamma. The historical details are not the issue.

While reading the PTS translation of the Buddhava.msa, I made notes and did some calculations. Here I present the results with the disclaimer that I have doubts about the accuracy of the PTS translation (which I don't have at hand while writing this blog). I am not skilful enough in Paali to be able to do a better translation and don't currently have time to try.

The following table shows the list of buddhas as appear in the Buddhava.msa and Cariyaapi.taka of the Khudakkanikaaya. Note that the suttas in the other four sutta pitaka (Majjhima, Digha, Sa.myutta, Anguttara) only mention 7 previous buddhas - those numbered 1-7 in the table below.  For example, refer to Nidaanasa.myutta S12.4-10 and Mahaapadaana Sutta in the Dighanikaaya (D14).

Table of Samaasambuddhas from the Buddhava.msa

n	Buddha	Height (ratana, hattha)	Height (metres)	Height adjusted (metres)	Life-span (years)	Dhutanga (years, months, days)	Vehicle	Kappa (aeon)
28	Ta.nha~nkara	The Buddhava.msa does not provide statistics on these three buddhas who are believed to have appeared before Diipankara Buddha						4 innumerables
27	Medha’nkara
26	Saara.na’nkara
25	Diipankara	80h	50	8.9	100,000	10m	elephant
24	Ko.n.da~n~na	88h	55	19.8	100,000	10m	chariot	3 innumerables
23	Ma'ngala	88r	33	5.9	90,000	8m	horse	2 innumerables
22	Sumana	90h	56.2	10	90,000	10m	elephant
21	Revata	80h	50	8.9	60,000	7m	chariot
20	Sobhita	58r	21.7	3.7	90,000	7d	palace
19	Anomadassin	58r	21.7	3.7	100,000	10m	palanquin	1 innumerable
18	Paduma	58r	21.7	3.7	100,000	8m	chariot
17	Naarada	88r	33	5.9	90,000	7d	on foot
16	Padumuttara	58r	21.7	3.7	100,000	7d	palace	100,000 kappa
15	Sumedha	88r	33	5.9	90,000	14d	elephant	30,000 kappa
14	Sujaata	50r	17.8	3.2	90,000	9m	horse
13	Piyadsssin	80h	50	8.9	90,000	6m	chariot	1800 kappa
12	Atthadassin	80h	50	8.9	100,000	8m	horse
11	Dhammadassin	80h	50	8.9	100,000	7d	palace
10	Siddhattha	60r	22.5	3.8	100,000	10m	palanquin	94 kappa
9	Tissa	60r	22.5	3.8	100,000	8m	horse	92 kappa
8	Phussa	58r	21.7	3.7	90,000	6m	elephant
7	Vipassin	80h	50	8.9	80,000	8m	chariot
6	Sikhin	70h	43.7	7.8	70,000	8m	elephant	31 kappa
5	Vesabhuu	60r	22.5	3.8	60,000	6m	palanquin
4	Kakusandha	40r	14.3	2.5	40,000	8m	chariot	Present kappa
3	Ko.naagamana	30h	10.7	3.3	30,000	6m	elephant
2	Kassapa	20r	7.1	1.3	20,000	7d	palace
1	Gotama	18h	11.2	2	100	6y	Horse
	Metteya	A bodhisatta in the Tusita  deva realm waiting for the right time to take birth as a human and be the next sammasambuddha in this world system

Height

I highlighted a few parts of the above table to give readers a sense of the range and make a few points:

Sumana Buddha was the tallest Buddha in this group at 10m in height while Kassapa Buddha was the shortest Buddha at 1.3m in height. This variation can be explained in many ways though all are speculative.  I note that G.P. Malalasekera's Dictionary of Pali Proper Names translates both hattha and ratana as "cubits". So his where the biographical notes for the buddhas refers to height, it would correspond to the 4th column above rather than the adjusted height column. As you can see, if that were so, then Gotama Buddha would have been over 11m tall.  If he had been so tall, there would have been more references to this in the suttas. However, noting the difference between ratana and hattha and doing some calculations with the assumption that Gotama Buddha was no more than 2m tall then we may adjust the speculated heights of the other buddhas accordingly. Even adjusted, many buddhas remain extremely tall.

Perhaps those taller Buddhas existed during periods when the gravity of the “Earth” was weaker than we have now. Perhaps they lived on planets other than Earth or rings/orbitals?  Maybe the planetary gravity for Buddha Kassapa's dispensation was stronger and made everyone shorter. Heights are relative and beings existing in periods of previous Buddhas would not know they were relatively high or relatively short compared with humans on Earth right now (or 2,500 years ago).  So this kind of speculation is really not important as far as the Dhamma goes. Height is not an impediment to realising the Dhamma.

Of course there are other explanations such as: it is all fiction; it is all fact but some of the details got muddled; and the other buddhas existed in parallel universes somewhere in the multiverse. 

Calculating height

The Paali terms for measuring length and weights are not precise or commonly agreed.  I have based my notes and calculations on A Pali-English Glossary of Buddhist Technical Terms compiled by Bhikkhu Nanamoli and edited by Bhikkhu Bodhi, published by the Buddhist Publication Society and footnotes from the Bhikkhu Bodhi translations of suttas.   I don’t know why the compilers of the Buddhava.msa chose to record the heights of past buddhas with two different measuring units – hattha (h) and ratana (r). I would like to carefully read the Paali text of the Buddhava.msa to see if the PTS translators were accurate with these details.

The Paali word hattha means “hand” but does not correspond to the size of the average human hand.  The reference books say that a hattha is a cubit and measures from the elbow to the extended little finger.

[ needs more work here]

1 yojana = 2.8 kilometres = 1.8 miles

1 yojana = 4 gaavuta; 1 gaavuta = 80 usabha; 1 usabha = 20 yatthi; 1 yatthi = 4 hattha  & 1 yatthi = 7 ratana; 1 ratana = 4/7 hattha = 0.57 hatta

18 hattha = 2 metres; 1 hattha = 200/18 cm = 11.1 cm

1 yojana = 4*80*20*4 = 25,600 hattha = 2.84 kilometres

The 3^rd column in the table indicates the height as specified in either ratana or hattha.
The 4th column shows the heights as converted directly into metres.  I am not sure that the conversion rate for  ratana to metres or hattha to metres is correct. I (or someone) needs to study this matter further.  Readers will notice straight away that Gotama Buddha is supposed to be 18 hattha or 11.2 metres tall.  This is not possible.  So I made an assumption that Gotama Buddha was 2 metres tall. I based this assumption on references in the Suttas [need to find the references] that he was from the khattiya caste (warrior noble), a prince with a privileged upbringing as well as references to his above average height [need to find the references].
The 5th column shows my effort at adjusting the heights to a more "realistic" height. Assuming for the moment that the hattha and ratana to metre conversion rates are correct I maintained the relative difference in heights among the buddhas but adjusted them all downwards in the same proportion as adjusting Gotama Buddha's apparent 11.2 metre height down to 2 metres. This calculation leads to the figures in the 6th column.  Even so, I am still doubtful about the height figures over all. 

Life-span

Nine Buddhas had the longest life-span of 100,000 years. Eight Buddhas had the second longest life span of 90,000 years.  Gotama Buddha has the shortest lifespan of 100 years. The next shortest lifespan is 20,000 years for Kassapa Buddha.  This lifespan is really quite short compared with other Buddhas in this table.   A longer life-span would mean a longer period to teach the Dhamma and I suppose that many more beings would have the chance to make merit and or realise the Dhamma.  It is amazing that the Buddha Dhamma has lasted even 2,500 years and people today can still benefit from these teachings. Even if we have relatively short life-spans, we are very fortunate to have been able to study and practice the Dhamma.  This is a rare opportunity.  In the suttas there are cases where people didn't seem to study or practice much and yet had profound realisations. Time is not the issue; lifespan is not the issue;  Dhamma is akaaliko - timeless or beyond time.

Period of austerities (dhutanga)

All Buddhas in this table except Gotama Buddha attained enlightenment in 10 months or less after leaving home (the period of dhutanga). Gotama Buddha spent 6 years in austerities before attaining enlightenment.  This period is more than six times as long as any other Buddha in this table. I don't have the reference, but I do recall reading that Gotama Buddha had to spend longer in austerities because of his bad speech as a bodhisatta named Jotipaala during the dispensation of Kassapa Buddha.  I encourage you read M81 Gha.tikaara Sutta from the Majjhimanikaaya for the complete version of this excellent story.  Even though the Jotipaala was impudent at the beginning, there is a happy ending when he ordains as a bhikkhu in the Sangha of Kassapa Buddha (great merit).  Bhikkhu Bodhi's translation of the Majjhimanikaaya has a footnote comment from the commentary to this sutta "MA states that bodhisattas go forth under the Buddhas to purify their virtue, learn the Buddha's teachings, practice the meditative life, and develop insight up to conformity knowledge (anuloma~naa.na  [the last stage of vipassana insight just prior to realization of Nibbaana]). But they do not make effort to attain the paths and fruits (which would terminate their bodhisatta career)."   

Bhikkhu Bodhi does not refer to the link between the bodhisatta Jotipaala's bad speech and the long period of austerities endured by Bodhisatta Gotama prior to attaining Nibbaana.  The link seems plausible and speculative at the same time. If true, it indicates the severity of kamma one accumulates by verbally abusing the Sangha. Note that Gotama (was Jotipaala) Bodhisatta had previously and subsequently accumulated a vast (incalculable) store of good kamma and this would have mitigated most of the bad results of his unwholesome speech. This may be compared with someone convicted of a crime avoiding imprisonment because of their previous outstanding record so they only have to report regularly to a parole officer and do a long period of community service.

Five of the 25 buddhas in the table endured austerities for as little as 7 days.  They also lived during periods of human existence when the average maximum life-span was much greater than today - 20,000 to 100,000 years.  Relative to their life-span a period of seven days doing austerities would seem quite rapid.  Perhaps these buddhas had accumulated greater merit and were extremely mature.

Vehicles

The vehicles used by bodhisattas for leaving home vary a lot. The surprising vehicle is a palace. In the PTS translation this is written as a floating palace. I think the Paali for this term is probably "vimaana".  Vimaana are usually the palaces of deva and according to sutta and commentary traditions can be extremely large - even larger than modern cities while other vimana may be as large as a car or carriage. Vimana are the houses and vehicles of deva.  According to tradition mature bodhisattas spend time in the Tusita heavenly realm as deva being waiting for the right conditions to take human birth and attain Nibbaana.  Buddhas are always human and never deva.

For some bodhisatta to leave home in a vimaana seems to me to imply some kind of high tech antigravity device.  Maybe technology of human civilization during those periods when bodhisatta (as human beings) are leaving home is very advanced (more advanced than we have now) and floating palaces (vimaana) with crew/servants are common for wealthy princes.  This point is not very important though. Whatever technology is in existence is irrelevant to the realisation of the Dhamma. Leaving home on foot or in a flying palace is essentially still renunciation.

A palanquin is a type of human-powered transport, usually a covered box with a cushioned platform or seat for a passenger with two long poles poking from either end.  Some palanquins have yokes attached to the poles so the weight is carried more directly on the carrier's shoulders.  Two or more carriers lift and carry the box by holding on to the poles.  

Kappa (aeon)

The conception of cosmological time periods in the Buddhist tradition is very difficult to hold in one’s mind.  The terms are not precise though given the lengths of time being discussed and the state of science at the time these details were being written, it is not surprising that there may be some margins for error.  However, I personally find these details fascinating and helpful to put in perspective the vastness of sa.msaara (the round of becoming, birth and death).   Studying these details can inspire some people to put more effort into Dhamma study and practice without having to believe these details are literally true in the way that most people hold scientific facts to be literally true.  

Some readers may be interested in reading more about Buddhist cosmology. The suttas don’t have much detail and that is just as well.  The most details come from the Abhidhamma and the A.t.thakataa commentaries.  I offer some cautions to guide you.  Most of this field is speculative and it would be best to study it with an open mind.  There is no way for us to prove with any certainty any of this stuff. Ultimately proof of this cosmology is not required for realisation of Nibbaana. Remember what the Blessed One taught in the Rohitassa Sutta in the Devaputta Sa.myuttanikaaya (S2.26) “As to the end of the world, friend, where one is not born, does not age, does not die, does not pass away, and is not reborn- I say that is cannot be known, seen, or reached by travelling… However, friend, I say that without having reached the end of the world there is no marking an end to suffering. It is, friend in just this fathom-high carcass endowed with perception and mind that I make known the world, the origin of the world, the cessation of the world, and the way leading to the cessation of the world.’   This last sentence is extremely valuable. Keep it in mind when you go exploring speculative theories. 

The following distinctions between types of aeons is derived from Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma which is a guide to the ancient classic Abhidhammattha Sangaha (a summary of the essential points in the abhidhamma commentaries that has been used as an ancient abhidhamma text book). 

Interim aeon – antarakappa is the time required for the life span of humans to rise from 10 years to a maximum of many thousands of years (100,000) and then fall back to 10 years.  It seems the cycle is currently in the declining phase, though it may appear to be rising during the past 100 years.   Human life spans may increase  to 10,000 years or more prior to the next human birth of Metteya Bodhisatta so he may attain Nibbaana and become the next samasambuddha.

Incalculable aeon – asa.nkheyyakappa is the time required for 64 interim aeons to pass.

Great aeon – mahaakappa is the time required for 4 incalculable aeons to pass which is the same as 256 interim aeons.

Innumerable number of aeons is an unknown but very large number of great aeons.  It is not infinite because it is impossible to have a bunch of infinities. Infinity is not quantifiable at all, it is a concept of endlessness. An innumerable number of aeons is quantifiable by buddhas but not by ordinary humans or any deities including even those brahma deities with the longest life spans.  Maybe buddhas know it but are unable to explain it to anyone else in everyday language?  So four innumberables in the past is a very long time ago. It is really just a concept that has is beyond my everyday reality.

When contemplating these vast periods of time, don’t assume that human existence is a constant. It seems there may be vast periods of time when there are no humans, only brahma deities whose life spans are also very very long indeed. I shall write about that in another post about heavenly realms, deva and knowing previous existences.

Perhaps an interim kappa is the same length as the period between big bang events. The universe is currently 13.7×10⁹ (13.7 billion) years old.  According to speculative theories by some physicists the eventual heat death of the universe may occur in about 10¹⁰⁰ years (1 with 100 zeros after it).  So maybe a kappa is 10¹⁰⁰ years. 

In the table above, there are buddhas who appeared 4 innumerables ago, 3 innumerables ago, 2…, 1…, and then 100,000 kappa, 30,000 kappa and down until in our present fortunate kappa there have been 4 buddhas already with one more to arise before the end of this kappa. Given the vast periods of time here, it is truly auspicious for us to be born as humans who know Buddhism during a kappa with 5 buddhas. Buddhas are rare events. Incredibly rare.  After Metteya Buddha’s dispensation there may not be another Buddha for many kappa – who knows. This thought can inspire us to put more energy into study and practice while we have this rare opportunity.  By comparison we might wonder if it is really important to watch TV or play a game.   

[Pedantic note: Another caution is the common English use of the word incalculable for referring to large bunch of aeons (not just one incalculable aeon – an unknown large number of aeons. This leads to confusion and may have resulted from an early PTS editing error. I would like everyone to commit to using “innumerable” aeons for referring to an unknown large number of aeons so we can reserve the word “incalculable” for referring to a single aeon of indeterminately long period. ]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_(The_Culture)